Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economics | History XII Part-1

1.Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?

Ans. Widespread and deep excavations in the early historic towns have not been possible dueto the fact that these towns are still inhabited. In Harappan Civilisation, we have been fortunate enough that excavations have taken place widespread. Despite this shortcoming, we havefound many artefacts in the historic towns. These throw light on the craftsmanship of thosedays. There are other evidences too, that throw light on the craftsmanship of those days. Thesalient features of such evidences are as follows:

1.From the sights the fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They are glossy too andwe call them Northern Black Polished Ware. It looks they were used by the rich people.
2.There have also been evidence of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. Thereare a wide range of items made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
3.The donor inscription tells who all lived in towns in terms of professionals and craftsmen. Itincluded washer men, weaver, scribes, carpenters, goldsmith, ironsmith, etc. It is notable inHarappan towns there are no evidences of iron use.
4.The craftsmen and artisans built their guilds too. They collectively bought raw materials,produced and marketed their products.

2.Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas.

Ans. Mahajanapadas were states that existed between 6th and 4th BC centuries. Buddhistand Jain texts mention sixteen Mahajanapadas. The name of all these are not uniform in all texts but some names are common and uniform which means they were the powerful ones. 

These Mahajanapadas are Vajji, Magadha, Kaushal, Kuru, Panchal, and Gandhar.

The important features of the Mahajanapadas are as follows.

1.Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by powerful kings. However, there were someMahajanapadas where rule was in the hands of people, we call them republics. In some states the king and the subject had collective control on the economic resources of the state.

2.Every Mahajanapadas had its own capital. The capital normally would be surrounded by fort.
The fortification of the capital was needed for protection and economic resources.

3.It was around 6th Qentury BC, Brahmins began to compile scripture called “Dharmshastra”
which states rules of morality including that of monarch. Herein it was mentioned that the king
should be Kshatriya.

4.The main job of the king was collection of taxes from farmers, traders, craftsmen. They also
accepted donations. 

5.It was considered fair to plunder neighbouring countries for riches.

6.Gradually Mahajanapadas began to have full time army and officials. Soldiers were from theranks of farmers.

3.How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Ans. Ordinary people could not leave behind any historical evidence about their life. Hence, the
historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the lives of the common people during the
ancient times. The important sources are:
1.Remains of houses and pottery give an idea of the life of common men.
2.Some inscriptions and scriptures talk about the relation between monarchs and the subject.
It talks about taxes and happiness and unhappiness of the common men.
3.Changing tools of craftsmen and farmers talk about the lifestyle of the people.
4.Historians also depend upon folklores to reconstruct the lives of the people during the
ancient times.

4.Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief with thoseproduced in the village of Danguna. Do you notice any similarities anddifferences?

Ans. The gifts given to Pandya chief included things like ivory, fragrant wood, honey,
sandal¬wood, pepper, flowers, etc. in additions to many birds and animals were also given asgifts. On the contrary, items produced in the village of Danguda included grass, skin ofanimals, flower salt and other minerals, etc. In both the lists the only common item is flower.

5. List some of the problems faced by the epigraphists.
Ans. The specialists who study inscriptions are called Epigraphists. Some of the important
problems they encounter when they try to decipher inscriptions are as follows:

1.Many of the inscriptions are not found in proper shape, they are partly damaged, hence
deciphering them becomes a knotty problem.

2.The inscriptions are written from the point of view of those who have created it. Hence, inorder to get an impartial understanding, we need to go beyond the written words, get into itsinterpretations.

3.Many of the inscriptions have descriptions in symbolic words. Hence deciphering them havebecome difficult.

4.Sometimes the inscriptions are engrafted in very light colors. Hence, deciphering thembecomes difficult.

6. Discuss the main features of the Mauryan administration. Which of these elements areevident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Ans. Asokan inscriptions mention all the main features of the administration of the MauryanEmpire. Thus, the features of the administration are evident in the inscriptions of the Asokanage. The important features of the same are as follow:

1.The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra. Apart from the capital there ‘ were fourother centres of political power in the empire. They were Taxila, Ujjaini,
Tosali and Suvamagiri.

2.Committee and subcommittees were formed to run the administration and safety ofboundaries. Megasthenes has mentioned that there were one committee and six sub-committees. The six subcommittees and their areas of activities are as follows:
(i)The first sub committee looked after navy.
(ii)The second sub committee looked after transport and communications.
(iii)The third sub committee looked after infantry.
(iv)The fourth sub committee had the responsibility of horses.
(v)The fifth had the responsibility of chariots.
(vi)The sixth had the responsibility of elephants.

3. Strong network of roads and communications were established. It is notable that no largeempire can be maintained in the absence of the same.

4.Asoka made an attempt to keep the empire united by the philosophy of Dhamma. Dhammaare nothing but moral principles that actuated people towards good conducts. Special officerscalled Dhamma Mahamtras were appointed to propagate Dhamma. In fact Romila Thapar hasmade it the most important element of the Asokan state’s governing principle.

7.This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century,D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of the Indians that is not reflected ininscriptions.” Discuss.
Ans. The statement of eminent epigraphist D.C. Sirkar has highlighted the importance ofinscription as single source of information that touch upon all areas of our life. Following arethe main areas we get information about from the inscriptions.

1. Determination of state’s boundaries: the inscriptions were carved in the territories of thekings and even more important is not often close to the borders. This help us find out boundaries of kingdoms and their expansions thereto.

2. Names of Kings: The names of the kings are mentioned in the inscriptions. The names andtitles used by Asoka the Great got revealed through inscriptions only.
3. Historic events: The important historical events are mentioned in the inscriptions. The bestexample is how the event of the Kalinga war is mentioned in the inscription and how Asokatakes to Dhamma.
4. Information about conduct of Kings: Inscriptions describe the conduct and character of thekings quite well. It is through the inscriptions only that we know Asoka worked for the welfare
of the masses.
5. Information about administration: Inscriptions gave information about administration. It isthrough the inscription. We know that Asoka appointed his son as a Viceroy.
6. Land settlement and Taxes: inscriptions mention how land were granted or gifted. It also
talks about various taxes imposed by the ruler.
There is hardly any area of governance of our life that is not mentioned in the inscriptions.
Hence, we are inclined to agree with D.C. Sirkar who says, “There is no aspect of life, culture,activities of Indians that is not reflected in the inscriptions.

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Ans. In the post-Mauryan age, the idea of kingship got associated with divine theory of state.
Now, the monarchs began to talk about divine sanction to rule the people. Kushan rulerspropagated the idea of the same at the unprecented scale. They ruled from central Asia towestern India. We can discuss the kingship based on the dynasties.
1.Kushan Kings: Kushan Kings called themselves Devputra and hence, godly status. They builtgreat statues of themselves in temples.
2.Gupta Rulers: Second development of kingship is found during Gupta dynasty. It was aperiod of large-sized states. Such states were dependent on Samantas who sometimesbecame powerful enough to usurp the power of kings too.
3.Literature, coins and inscriptions helped us in creating history of those days. Very often poets would describe the monarch often to praise them but giving insight into the history and
kingship too. A good example is of Harisena who praised Samudragupta, the great Gupta ruler.

9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Ans. The demand for taxes increased in the post 600 BC. In order to meet the demand of
excessive taxes, without taking lesser produce, forced the farmers to increase productivity.
This resulted in the use of new tools and practices of agriculture. The important ones are as
follows:
1.Use of plough: Ploughs became commonplace. They were hardly heard of in the past. The
use of ploughs began in the Ganga and Cauvery basins. In places where rain was abundant,
the plough was used with iron tip. This increased the paddy production manifold.
2. Use of spade: Another tool that changed the system of agriculture is spade. Those farmers
who lived in the areas of harsh land used spade.
3. Artificial Irrigation: Apart from rainfall, the farmers now began to look at artificial form of
irrigation. This prompted farmers to build wells, ponds, and – canals often collectively. This
increased the agricultural production.
The production increased due to new technology and tools. This created a new strata in the
society. In the Buddhist literature, there is a description of small and big farmers. They were
called Grihpatis. Similar description is given in the Tamil literature too. The position of village
head was often hereditary. In such a situation the ownership of land became very important.

Bricks, Beads and Bones TheHarappan Civilisation | History XII Part-1

1.List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
Ans. 

Sr	Food	Groups who provided these food items
1	Products Taken From plants	Food Gatherer's Groups
2	Flesh and Fish	Hunter Groups
3	Wheat, Maize, Millet, Pulses, Rice and Other  Eatable products	Agricultural Groups

2.How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice?

Ans. Following examples can be cited to show the existence of social and economic variations : in the Harappan society:

(i)Study of burials is one example. In the Harappan sites, the deads were usually laid in pits.
There were differences in the Way burial pits were made. At some instances, the hollowed-out
spaces were lined with bricks. But these may not be taken as an indication of social differences.

(ii)In some graves pottery and ornaments have been found. Jewellery has been found from the
graves of men and women as well. These findings can point out social and economic differences. ‘

(iii)The artefacts have been classified into two categories, Utilitarian and Luxurious. Objects of
daily uses and objects made of ordinary materials made of clay or stone come under utilitarian
category. Ordinary articles consisted of querns, pottery, flesh-rubbers and needles. These have
been found distributed throughout settlements.

(iv)Objects of luxuries were rare and made from precious, non-local materials. The technology
used was advanced and complicated. Little pots of faience were considered precious. They
were also not easy to make. These show the existence of social and economic variations in
the Harappan society.


3. Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans. Yes, I agree with that the drainage system in Harappan cities which indicates the town
planning. I can cite the following reasons in support of my answer.
•The drainage system needed a planning for its execution. It seems that first drainages were
laid out and then houses were built along with the drains. Every house was supposed to have
at least one wall along a street to allow the domestic waste water to flow out in the street drains. The plans of the lower town show that roads and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
•It appears that human settlement was made by planning from the beginning. The city was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms.
•Bricks, sundried or baked, were of standard ratio. The length and breadth of bricks were of
four times and twice the height respectively These bricks were used at all the settlements of
the Harappan Civilisation.

4. List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan Civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
Ans. Making beads was an important craft of the Harappan people. It was mainly prevalent in 
Chanhudaro. Materials for making beads included beautiful red coloured stone-like camelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite. Besides these, use of copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, terracotta or burnt clay was also used.Process of making beads Making of beads differed as per the materials used. Beads had variety*of shapes. They did not make geometrical shapes like one made of harder stones. Nodules were to be chipped for making rough shapes. They were finally flaked into the final form. 
By firing the yellowish raw material, the red colour of camelian was obtained. Grinding, polishing and drilling constituted the last phase. Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira were famous for specialized drilling.

5.Look at figure 1.30 (See NCERT page-26) and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
Ans. Following observations can be obtained after looking at the figure: 
•Body has been kept in North-south direction in a pit,
•Many graves contain pottery and ornaments which include jar.
•Yes, jewellery like bangles are there on the body.
•Yes, this indicates towards the sex of the skeleton, Le. it is the body of a woman.

It is concluded that there were great social or economic differences among the people living
within the area of the Harappan Civilisation. But as a whole it appears that the Harappan did
not believe in burying precious things with the dead.


6.Describe some ofthe distinctive features of Mohenjodaro. [Delhi 2013]
Ans. Planned City: Harappa as a planned urban centre. It had two parts. One part of the city
was small. It was built on a higher place. The second part was comparatively large. It was built on a lower place. The first part was designed as citadel and the second part was as lower town. The citadel owed its height to the fact that it was built on mud brick platforms.It had walls on all sides and these walls were separated from the lower town.The Lower Town: It was also a walled town.Most of the buildings were built on platforms. 

In fact, these platforms were considered as foundation stones. It required huge quantity of labour force to build these platforms. It is obvious that settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the building plan.Quality of sun-dried bricks or baked bricks also prove the concept of planning. 
All the bricks were of standard ratio. The length and width was four times and twice the height of the bricks respectively. These bricks were used in the settlements of the Harappan
Civilisation. Drainage System: The drainage system was well planned. All the roads and streets were laid out on a grid pattern. They intersected one another at the right angles. It seems that streets featuring drains were laid out first and houses were built thereafter along with them. To make the flow of domestic water, every house had at least one wall along the street. The Citadel: There were many buildings in the citadel. These buildings were used for many special public purposes. The Warehouse and the Great Bath were the two most important constructions.

 
7.List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilisation and
discuss how these might have been obtained.
Ans. Following is the list of materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilisation:
Stone, clay, copper, tin, bronze, gold, faience, shell, camelian, jasper, crystal, steatite, quartz,
timber. Some of the raw materials were locally available whereas some were purchased from the distant places. Soil and wood were locally available raw materials. Stones, fine quality wood, metals were procured from distant places. Settlements of the Harappans were situated at such places where raw materials were easily available. Nageshwar and Balacot were famous for shell. Some places were famous for Lapis Lazuli like Shortughai in Afghanistan. Rajasthan and Gujarat were famous for copper. Lothal was famous for camelian. 

Another way of obtaining raw material was sending expeditions to different places. Evidences show that expedition was sent to Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and to South India for Gold. Through these expeditions local communities were contacted. Harappan evidences found at these places indicate contacts between each other. Evidences found at Khetri region were given the name of Ganeshwar Jodhpura Culture by archaeologists. Huge reserves of copper products were found here. It is assumed that inhabitants of these area sent copper to Harappan people. 

8.Discuss, how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
Ans. Archaeologists excavate the sites of the ancient past related to culture or civilization. They find out the art and craft such as seal, material, remains of houses, buildings, pots, ornaments, tools, coins, weights, measurements and toys, etc. Skulls, bones, jaws, teeth of the dead bodies and materials kept with these dead bodies are also helpful for archaeologists. With the help of the botanists, and zoologists, archaeologists study the plants and animal bones found at different places. 

Archaeologists try to find out the tools used in the process of cultivation and harvesting. They also try to find out traces of wells, canals, tanks, etc. as they served means of irrigation. Different layers of sites are observed to find out different things. These things give the picture of socio-economic condition such as religious life and the cultural life of the people.
Tools, unfinished products, waste materials, help in identifying the centres of craft production.  Indirect evidences also help the archaeologists in reconstructing the past. Archaeologists develop frames of references, It can be better understood by this fact that the first Harappan seal that was found could not be understood till archaeologists had a context in which to place it-both in terms of cultural sequence in which it was found and in terms of a comparison with finds in Mesopotamia. 

Examination of seals help in constructing the concept of religious belief of the period. Seals
depict religious scenes. Some animals such as the one-homed animal, often called the unicorn depicted on the seals appear mythical, composite creatures. In some seals, a figure has been shown sitting crossed legs in a yogic posture. All these represent the religious concept of the period.

9. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
Ans. There are different views on the Harappan society. One group of archaeologists suggest that the Harappan society had no rulers and so everybody enjoyed equal status. The other group of archaeologists are of the opinion that there was no single ruler but several ones. The third theory seems the most suitable. It suggests that it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions. 

Evidences show that complex decisions were taken and implemented in the Harappan society. Extra ordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks show the complex decisions.


Plans and layouts of the city were prepared under the guidance and supervisions of the rulers.
Big buildings, palaces, forts, tanks, wells, canals and granaries were constructed. Cleanliness was the responsibility of the ruler. Roads, lanes and drains were also constructed. The rulers also looked after the welfare of the economy. They hsed to inspire the farmers to increase agricultural production. They also motivated the craftsmen to promote different handicrafts. External and internal trade were both promoted by the ruler. The ruler used to issue common acceptable coins or seals, weights and measurements. Rulers were expected to provide relief during natural calamity. During flood, earthquake, epidemics, the ruler provided grains and other eatables to the affected people. During foreign aggression, the rulers defended the city.

10.On the given map, use a pencil to circle the sites where evidence of agriculture has been recovered. Mark an X against sites where there is evidence of craft production and R against sites where raw materials were found.
Ans. (i)Sites of agriculture: Harappa, Banawali, Kalibangan, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira (Gujarat).
(ii)Sites of craft production: Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, Balakot.
(iii)Sites of raw material: Nageshwar, Balakot, Khetri.